Motivation in management Essay

The study of motivation aims to facilitate understanding of what prompts employees to initiate action, what influences their choice of action and why they persist in such action over time. Motivation is important to business practitioners since it assists in seeking high performance within organisations. While effective employee motivation improves productivity, it also generates challenges for managers to channel motivation towards the accomplishment of organisational goal. This essay intends to examine several motivation theories with reference to the film the Devil wears Prada, and then discuss some challenges managers may face when attempting to motivate employees in the contemporary world of work. Following this introduction, three motivation theories including ERG theory, two-factor theory and reinforcement theory are exemplified by the film the Devil wears Prada in the findings part. Then, conclusions generating from findings as well as recommendations suggesting implications for managers will be given evolutionarily. Findings Motivation refers to the forces either within or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. The rationale behind theories of motivation is to provide a framework through which organisations can better influence their employees’ drive to work and increase their enthusiasm with their roles. Theories of motivation mainly contain content theories focusing on the underlying needs that motivate, process theories explaining the way employees select behavioural actions and reinforcement theories examining the relationship between behaviour and its consequence. Among so many theories concerning motivation, the ERG theory, two-factor theory and reinforcement theory are selected to be discussed in this essay. Besides, using film to simulate and examine organisational behaviours is considered to be an effective way to assist students in applying management theories, and even the primary instructional medium which can be incorporated into an organizational behaviour class as proposed by Gerald W. Smith. (Gerald, 2009) To illustrate motivation theory for further understanding, the Devil wears Prada is rather a good choice. Alderfer EGR Theory To some extent, Alderfer’s ERG theory can be considered as a condensate of famous Maslow’s five needs hierarchy theory. ERG theory considers the intrinsic factors that drive employees to behave more productively as well and Alderfer classified underlying human needs that generate motivation to three categories, containing existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs. (Samson & Draft, 2012) Motivating employees through satisfying their intrinsic needs is an effective way to understand and accelerate motivation in workplace. In the devil wears Prada, Andy’s progress in her job as Miranda’s assistant is an excellent illustration to understand this theory. Existence needs include all material and physiological desires for physical wellbeing. When Andy initially takes the job in Runway and strives for being Miranda’s second assistant, she is identified to be motivated by her existence needs that affording living expenses in New York and getting career started after graduation from university. She considered ‘this stuff’ has nothing to do with her, indicating she felt unrelated with this workplace, unlike Emily who have great enthusiasm towards fashion industry and therefore are extremely motivated especially by strong needs for growth (chance to go Paris for Fashion week). Then, after being frustrated by failure to complete missions and Miranda’s reprimand, Andy gradually gets involved and emerges relatedness needs, which encompass external esteem and relationships with significant others like co-workers and employers. She seriously cares about her competence of this job and wants to be recognized in Runway. Being successfully motivated, Andy becomes most productive assistant and wins appreciation of Miranda on the basis of her capacity. Andy seems to have a bright future of career at that point. However, Andy chooses not to persist as she realizes that her growth needs, which represent internal esteem and self-actualization, can never be satisfied in Runway. She eventually decides to turn another way to pursue the job satisfying all her needs. Herzberg’s two-factor theory Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation considered satisfaction and dissatisfaction as two separate entities caused by quite different factors, which were named hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are characterised as extrinsic components of job design that contribute to employee dissatisfaction if they are not met, while motivators are intrinsic to the job itself and include achievement, recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth. (Samson & Draft, 2012) Herzberg believed that hygiene factors work only in area of dissatisfaction, while employees are highly motivated just by the presence of motivators. It is the only motivational theory that splits out demotivating factors from true motivators. This two-factor theory seems to be illustrated in the Devil wears Prada as well. When Andy starts to work as Miranda’s second assistant, she is driven by several hygiene factors that generate job dissatisfaction, referring to working status, co-worker relationships, supervisory style and company administration. Andy has to deal with all of Miranda’s sudden requests no matter when and how difficult, indicating a terrible working status. She is not into Runway’s culture as well as her colleagues, and finally becomes frustrated about her job in Runway. However, after Andy gets involved in her job, motivators, referring mostly to Miranda’s recognition and her advancement at work, starts to continually burst Andy’s enthusiasm as well as productivity. At this stage, Andy’s capacity and even potency is successfully stimulated. Moreover, Adrian Furnham, Andreas Eracleous and Tomas Chamorro Premuzic (2008) stretched to further examine motivation in workplace based on combining two-factor theory with personality variables. For instance, they released that motivators were associated positively with extraversion, whilst high scores in the hygiene-related factor were negatively associated with extraversion. Andy, who concerns friends a lot and is recognised to be highly extroversive, also complies with this finding. It is interesting that she is so highly motivated by her recognition and advancement needs, that she even overcomes job dissatisfaction and gets used to her ‘mission impossible’ spontaneously, indicating her high degree of extraversion personality leads to more sensitively react to motivators than hygiene-related factors. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation While satisfying human needs are the key sources that drive employees to behave more productively, to the extent that managers understand employee needs, the organisation’s reward systems can be designed to meet them and reinforce employees for directing energies and priorities towards attainment of organisational goals. In the devil wears Prada, the main reinforcement tool utilized by Miranda to modify Andy’s behaviour at first she takes the job is recognised to be punishment, which mostly refers to reprimanding. Miranda berates Andy severely following her failure of getting the flight Miranda needs and actually succeeds in reducing the likelihood of the behaviour recurring under the circumstance in the film. However, it is worth noticing that Andy is totally frustrated and don’t know what her fault is when Miranda punishes her through reprimanding. This indicates the controversial use of punishment in organisation which is often criticised for failure to direct the correct behaviour. (Samson & Draft, 2012) Then Miranda’s reinforcement tool changes to avoidance learning, which stops ignoring Andy after Andy is into her position and shows her capacity. Miranda also encompass positive reinforcement that she offers ‘gifts’, such as cosmetics and bags, as well as higher level task indicating recognition (delivery of the mock-up book), and promotes Andy by replacing Emily. In contrast, Emily is given extinction reinforcement tool at this stage as her chance to go to Paris is withdrawn. Conclusion In the first 30 minutes of the film, it shows that motivation arising from satisfying existence needs only leads Andy to ‘deign to work’ and turns to be not enough to boost Andy’s productivity Miranda requires. Andy tends to just accomplish her tasks passively and evaluates her job requirements are not reasonable due to inadequate motivation. No extra, or even required passion or efforts is given spontaneously, which is described by Nigel as ‘not trying’. It indicates the inefficiency for organisations to drive employees to work only relying on payment. Besides, while the motivation from satisfying growth needs perfectly stimulates Emily to make every effort, the assistant job can never meet the growth needs of Andy, based on diverse aspirations of them two. It indicates one of the complexities faced by managers that identifying purpose derived from work for individuals is sophisticated, and meanwhile bound to motivate employees effectively as well as sustainably. Moreover, the film reveals the implication of two-factor theory for managers that poor hygiene factors will generate dissatisfaction, while recognition, achievement and opportunities for growth are powerful motivators that stimulate employees’ productivity. What’s fascinating about this is that even things like human relations training and job participation don’t intrinsically motivate people. They may charge a person’s battery, but it will run flat again at some point of no real motivation is instilled. Recommendation Although it is a special situation that employees with particular personality, like Andy, can be forced to get involved through experiencing failure, the lesson of motivation, that employees will emerge relatedness needs and then generate higher motivation once they concern and feel related to workplace, is rather a useful inspiration for managers to encompass enhancing employees’ involvement as motivation issues. To the extent manager generates employee’s involvement, they can initiatively get into organisational norms and makes additional efforts to behave towards management’s expectations. Besides, as motivation arises from within employees and typically differs for each employee, organisations should learn about employees’ living conditions as well as personality variables that contribute to their diverse needs, with the intention of increasing job satisfaction and performance. On the basis of such knowledge, motivators aim to accurately satisfy employees’ intrinsic needs and then burst their productivity to the greatest extent, can be established. Reference Adrian Furnham and Andreas Eracleous Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic (2008) Personality, motivation and job satisfaction: Hertzberg meets the Big Five, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 24 No. 8, 2009, pp. 765-779 Jennifer Kunz & Stefan Linder (2012) Organizational Control and Work Effort – Another Look at the Interplay of Rewards and Motivation, European Accounting Review, 21:3, 591-621 Samson, D. and Daft, R.L. (2012) Management (Fourth Asia Pacific Edition).Cengage Learning: South Melbourne Smith, G.W. (2009) Using Feature Films as the Primary Instructional Medium to Teach Organizational Behavior, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 23 No. 4 462-489

“A Helping Hand” Story Essay

In the story, â€Å"A Helping Hand† I am creating a Gothic tale which takes place in the mid-eighteenth century in London, England where the madman of this story takes his hostage, a young dancer by the name of Mary, who is an eighteenth century prostitute, who has something on hand, in which this Gothic creature, longs for.   I intend to create a desperate and scary situation, that will leave my reading audience paralyzed with fear but unable to pull themselves away from this story. It will be a winning Gothic tale; hands down! The hallowing winds hurled Mary’s hair into air, as she crossed the rocky road that led her to her tiny stone villa, on Fourth Street.   She had danced easily for the gentlemen callers who had paid their dues, in order to watch her move across the floor with incredible grace and little clothing. She had performed this dance ritual for several months, now, and she had saved up enough money to pay her rent plus buy food, which was a rarity she had earlier missed. She searched her bag for the golden key that would allow her to enter, and she panicked when she discovered it wasn’t in its proper place. The wind had picked up even more strength and she could barely hold her feet on the ground as she continued to look for the key. There was a humming in the distance, and she convinced herself that it was just another voice that the storm was offering, and as it grew louder and clearer, she froze where she stood. She could feel him standing behind her, but she couldn’t allow herself to look. She could barely catch her breath and as she felt his hand rest on her shoulder, she closed her eyes and pretended she was back on the dance floor. He smelled of cedar and whiskey and as he brushed his hand across the back of her neck, she spoke words that she had no idea where they emerged from. â€Å"Can I help you?† I was all she could say and she wondered if he had been a male caller who had watched her dance, earlier. She could feel the sharp object protruding from his arm and when she was finally able to turn around; she saw that he was equipped with the prosthetic hand that he had used to touch her. Had he any feelings in his hands? He must have, since she could feel the warmth that radiated from the object. She looked him in his face as he dangled the golden key before her. He had somehow managed to steal his way into her existence and now she had no other choice but to follow him inside the home that had earlier provided her a safe haven. He didn’t speak but his eyes said all that she needed to know. He was there for one reason and she could feel his eyes piercing her soul as he placed the artificial hand to her chest. â€Å"Mary, be kind!† Were the first words he spoke as she wiped a single tear from her cheeks, and removed her sweater. â€Å"No!† His voice was strong and he had not wanted this from her, but something much more personal. There was no way she could give this to him, and as she thought about it, she would have rather that he had been a crude pervert who only wanted her body, but he was asking for more than that! Her body tightened and she stood immobilized as he seemed to say thank you with his eyes and she suddenly wished that she hadn’t moved away from her family. They had warned her about the dangers that existed in London, England and had advised her to reconsider her move so far away from those who cared about her. But, she had been strong-willed and their words of advice hadn’t been able to convince her. He was growing impatient and she wished that his breathing could have been gentler and as she realized there was no way of escaping, she at last reached offered her hand to him. He had stroked it with affection. It was something that he had desired for so long and when he saw how gracefully they moved while she danced, he couldn’t bare not to have one of them, as his own. He removed a long razor that was attached to a wooden handle and he placed his arm around her arms and chest to secure them, so they wouldn’t flop or flinch, as he removed the precious gift. The scream was shrilling and the terror he saw in her eyes didn’t faze him. He wanted it so badly that her pain, he felt, was a small price to pay for the happiness it would bring to him. It was a gift that would enable him to give back so much more than she could ever offer with the long fingered hand. It was after midnight when she finally awoke. The medicine he had given her had caused her to sleep as he ceased the blood flow and sutured the wound that he had given her. It would have proven more beneficial if it had caused her to sleep through the blunt trauma but that kind of pain could not be stopped by anything, including the strong tranquilizer he had shoved down her throat before the surgery. Her eyes fluttered and he seemed to move in a cloud over her, as she whispered that she needed water. He held the vial of fluid to her lips as she took the first sip and she searched his eyes once more, trying to remember the events of the night and as she saw her hand moving toward her face, she realized it was her own. â€Å"My unselfish love, you have given to me of yourself. You have freely offered the gracefulness of your touch that I will forever feel against my flesh. I will carry this part of your body with me forever, and I will always be thankful to you!† He had seemed appreciative as she tried to lift her limb that was wrapped in blood-stained wrapping that was lifted above her head. She thought about her family as she wondered if she would ever see them again as she felt a shot of blood pulsate through the bandage. She had never felt pain of this severity and as she tried to raise herself to a standing position, this stranger pulled her back to the bed and stroked her face with his feminine fingers. It was two days before she could gather the energy to walk to her small kitchen and when she did, she searched for him and in a whimpering voice she called out to him. There was no reply as she drank a full glass of the water that she had so thirsted for. She searched each dark room and he was nowhere to be found. She let out a tiny sigh of relief as she walked toward the front door. She would find someone who could help her; someone who could call a family member or take her to get some medical help. Her wrist felt like fire moving through the end and she held it tightly as she ran toward safety. The coldness of the day and the bitter rain exaggerated the pain she felt but she knew she couldn’t delay. She had to find someone who could cause this horrible pain to go away. As she picked up speed, heading in the direction of the ancient saloon, she heard him breathing but continued on her important journey. The saloon was full of familiar faces and as she walked across the floor she saw him gazing at her, once again. He held his graceful hand across the table as she watched him and suddenly moved in his direction. â€Å"Mary, you won’t tell anyone! A gift is something you don’t take back or fret over but something you offer in return for the comfort of knowing that you have helped another. Haven’t you ever heard that it is better to give than to receive?† She was lost for words as she witness the boldness of his speech that flowed from his lips, so easily. â€Å"Mary, I didn’t ask you for an arm or leg; just a gift for someone who was in need. All I asked for was a helping hand!†

African American: an Identity Crisis Essay

For centuries African Americans have been indoctrinated to subsist in a cultural and historical vacuum by their oppressors who would seek to bar them from ever making the connection to their illuminating past. This systematic agenda of mis-education and lies by omission has made possible the subjugation and enslavement, in body and mind, of the African American by his oppressors. In his essay â€Å"The Study of the Negro,† Dr. Carter G. Woodson sets out to ruminate on why the African American has been misled in his ascension to human equality and dignity and how he can remedy the dismal state of his affairs. A thorough reading of Woodson’s pioneering work indicates that we should study the experiences of African-descended people to gain knowledge about ourselves and other cultures as well as to take back accurate traditions and histories that have all but been discredited or misrepresented. Furthermore, only through this systematic study of their meaningful contributions to history can African Americans elevate themselves to empowered enlightenment. One reason to study the experiences of the African American is to instill in him a sense of purpose and place in a world that otherwise intends to keep him perpetually in the dark. Undoubtedly the aim of his oppressors has been to convince him that his history is unimportant so as to deprive him of the sense of pride that is so necessary to feel wholly human. By espousing that â€Å"he has no worthwile past, that his race has done nothing significant since the beginning of time, and that there is no evidence that he will ever achieve anything great† (Woodson 6), his oppressors can be sure that the African American will continue down the path of mis-education that so allows for his subservience to a system that cares nothing for him. However, â€Å"if you teach the Negro that he has accomplished as much good as any other race he will aspire to equality and justice without regard to race. † (Woodson 6) The core purpose of African American studies is to take back from obscurity that piece of the historical puzzle without which the African American would be amidst an endless identity crisis. By studying the origin of his people, the African American, who â€Å"has not yet learned to think and plan for himself as others do for themselves† (Woodson 7), can take control of his own destiny rather than taking as truth â€Å"an abundance of information which others have made accessible to the oppressed. † (Woodson 7). The culture of indoctrination cultivated by the oppressor would have that â€Å"the Negro should cease to remember that he was once held a slave, that he has been oppressed, and even that he is a Negro. † (Woodson 7) Thus, it is plain to see that the African American’s oppressors have too much to lose by promoting the truth. Indeed, it would require them to admit their transgressions and to concede the countless meaningful contributions made by the African American to modern society. Without â€Å"a serious examination of the fundamentals of education, religion, literature, and philosophy as they have been expounded to him† (Woodson 7) by his oppressors, the â€Å"Negro joins the opposition with the objection that the study of the Negro keeps alive questions which should be forgotten. † (Woodson 7) Perhaps the most essential lesson to be learned from an effective, systematic study of African American history is that the contributions made by African Americans are far more numerous than any oppressor could ever know. It is with a pig-headed pride that they conceal the fact that â€Å"the history of the modern world was made, in the main, by what was taken from African people. † (Clarke) Without knowledge such as this, it would be impossible for the African American to take pride in himself and to seek the true identity he has been in search of for centuries. â€Å"A race is like a man. Until it uses its own talents, takes pride in its own history, and loves its own memories, it can never fulfill itself completely. † (Clarke) African American studies can help in understanding other cultures as well as our own by challenging and correcting the misrepresentations of Africa and Western Europe and their cultural legacies. What has been laid aground as history by the oppressor does not serve to benefit the African American but instead to keep him dependent on a system rife with underlying prejudice against his people. History is written in the image of the writer so, consequently, the African American must take up the reins of authorship himself and guide his own destiny. That is precisely why we should study the African American experience, to produce a platform on which he can take back what is innately his. After all, to be cognizant of where one is going, it is necessary to be aware of where one has been.

Classical Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Classical Music - Essay Example Classical music is deeply rooted in the western liturgical and secular music. The development of classical music can be traced back from the 11th century to the present time. The main subject matters became to be codified between 1550 and 1900; this period is referred to as the common practice period. The history of classical music has been organized into various periods of development. When we talk about the history of classical music, we basically refer to thousands of years in its development and the considerable western influence and the ancient eastern music of the Asian continent. The various periods of classical music include: medieval, renaissance, baroque, classical, romantic and the contemporary period. The period between the years 0 to 1400 AD, was described as the medieval period. It is the longest period of the classical music history. During this period, Saint Gregory is credited for organizing the larger parts of classical music that developed in first centuries of the Christian church. Saint Gregory was the pope from 490 to 604.

POLITICAL EXPERIENCE ANALYSIS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

POLITICAL EXPERIENCE ANALYSIS - Essay Example In effect, whether it is to protest some program of the government or to display your endorsement for a specific contender is known by all that majority of rallies achieve nothing. For oppressed cultures, where injustice is the order of the day, the rally has the opposite effect. Put it another way, there is nothing more powerful that thousands of people making the simple demand of, say, liberation. The odd successful rally in recent-day America invariably is a response to the attendance of coercion or inequality. During spring, I attended a rally for Barrack Obama in Ewes, Iowa. Preceding that experience, I had never attended any rally. I am in University. Obama’s rally at Iowa State University was promptly organized by some assiduous group. Why did I feel the urge to go? To put in another way, I was quite startled. This rally provided an opportunity to contribute in a time-privileged student tradition. I believe that the presence of some rally along the path of life is archetypal to the experience of any young man who is semi-educated and has the jot of political opinions. In a sense, this belief was accurate, just because is function to show the imprudence of swinging out of old political varieties for new time. It was a hot dreary day, as nature has added brushstrokes to the atmosphere to emphasize the farce of the attendees endeavor. We all stood around underneath the steps of the University’s Agricultural Building, and attempted to think ourselves as the re-embodiments of activists protesting at that very spot against the military’s Don’t Ask, Don’t policy and Obama’s abortion rights stance. A man got to his feet at the top of the stops and started shrieking into the microphone to get the rally going. The first few epistles were met with a proper amount of fervor mixed with ire. However, I had not expected to enter some arena of political thoughtfulness nor seriousness. But this one proved me wrong. I had

Computer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Computer - Essay Example Key to a computer is an appropriate RAM, this is because it runs computer programs and store the relevant information and data. Dell Inspiron 15R laptop has a Pre-installed memory (RAM) of 6GB. In addition, it has a hard disk drive of 320-GB that can turn at 5,400 revolutions per minute. Nonetheless, operators have the option to upgrade it to the hard disk capacity to 500GB or to downgrade to 250GB. This is an efficient laptop, its other important features include; the optical drive of times 8-speed, DVD as well as CD burner that provides both minus or plus DVD recordable format support and dual-layer disc type. Dell Inspiron 15R laptop is powered with up to 4th Generation Intel Core processors system it’s operating system entail Microsoft Windows 7 Home Premium. However, the windows version can be upgraded to the professional edition or be maintained depending on the preference of the users. Besides, the laptop has a LED Backlit display which measures 15.6 inch with special features like 1366 x 768 HD resolution and True-life. The Dell Inspiron 15R laptop processor system comprise of a proficient dual-core Intel Core i3-380M. Besides, it has a processing speed of up to 2.53GHz among other features. The laptop is considered more efficient because it is fitted because it is fitted with Ivy Bridge Core i5-3210M, processor which is paired with 6GB of system memory 3-MB. This enhances the performance since it provides high-speed access to computer data; and an Intel High Definition computer Graphics chipset for high graphics and quality video capabilities. The secondary storage system of The Dell Inspiron 15R laptop stores data for example, the Windows 7 operating system and other important user files. This system is determined by the existing volume of the hard disk. As mentioned in previous sections, Dell Inspiron 15R supports a hard disk volume of up to 500 Gigabyte (GB). This is

The Effects of Technology on the Accounting Profession Essay

The Effects of Technology on the Accounting Profession - Essay Example Technologies of inter connectivity has led a high degree of cooperation in exchange of data. Accounting soft wares have brought revolution in accounting and finalization of financial statements. Every time a transaction is proceed into accounting software all accounting activities till preparation of financial statements are performed by the software. Financial statements are available for analysis with every transaction processed. Non- customized soft wares are available for general accounting but large businesses and even some SMEs, like the organization I am associated with, get accounting software customized as per their requirements. Certain areas of core accounting have been immensely affected by Information Technology like preparation of payroll records, calculations and withholding of tax deductions, filing of payroll and tax returns, invoicing, tracking accounts receivables, on line bank transfers, and many others. Information technology has evolved such B2B (business to business) systems that work effectively despite complexities involved. In fact my organization has made such a system as part of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system. Bills are generated and payments are electronically processed through EBPP (Electronic Billing Presentation and Payment) systems, and accounting of such transactions is facilitated as soon as the bills are generated. One can imagine the impact of speed, accuracy, and savings affected by EBPP system on the accounting systems. Internet has opened lot of opportunities for small accounting firms through business processing operations. Accounting out sourcing is the invention of technological developments that has helped both CPA professional who is providing the work of his client by outsourcing it to other accounting professional who is receiving the outsourced assignment. The point is that at both ends, the provider and the

Royal Air Force Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Royal Air Force - Essay Example Metamorphic success has its inveterate roots in the past history which makes people accept and adapt to the environment of Leaning process, training and ability. All these aspects play a vital role in the Royal Air Force to facilitate its members in the longer run in terms of training and learning to operate new apparatus and equipment. Change in the Royal Air Force has both positive and negative side to the picture. Both the facets of change should be considered to supplement information about the Royal Air Force. Different projects manifest the darker and denser version of reality in relation to change in the Royal Air Force. As Sir Michael Howard puts it"[The military] is like a sailor navigating by dead reckoning. You have left the terra firma of the last war and are extrapolating from the experiences of that war. The greater the distance from the last war, the greater become the chances of error in this extrapolation. Occasionally there is a break in the clouds: a small-scale conflict occurs somewhere and gives you a "fix" by showing whether certain weapons and techniques are effective or not but it is always a doubtful mix. . . . For the most part you have to sail on in a fog of peace until at the last moment. Then, probably when it is too late, the clouds lift and there is land immediately ahead; breakers, probably, and rocks. Then you find out rather late in the day whether your calculations have been right or not". ROBERTSON, 1998, Air Power Journal; Successful change and clear vision lay the foundation of handling affairs such as --. Managing Resources, Engaging Communication and Empowering. Future research is the essence of findings leadership Competencies; Leader Activities; Leading Change; Royal Air Force Leadership; Change Context; Change Management; Change Success Wren, John; Duelist, Vic(2005)(title review) Aspects of managing change in the Royal Air Force: The system of the Royal Air force can be managed by setting up goals. Through management of objectives, goals can be achieved for any organizational unit such as the Royal Air Force. George S. Odiorne, in his book Management By Objectives throws light on this concept of managerial change "A system of management whereby the superior and subordinate jointly identify objectives, define individual major areas of responsibility in terms of results expected, and use these objectives and expected results as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members."2. Krahenbuhl, 1975 Facets of managerial concern with in the Royal Air Force: Organization Objective setting; this facet requires the manager of the Royal Air Fore to review the purpose for which an organization comes into power. For example mission statement and discussion about its progressive maneuvering is of great significance to the Royal management. Periodic review assiduously stresses the need for the emergence of an organization fully managed and controlled. This should be the starting point for the supervisor and the staff to set organizational objective in relation to the unit's concentrative areas, thus adapted during the approaching objective setting period. Goals upheld by staff members are as follows; to assist and guide the entire organization, to guide subordinate managers to formulate their own objectives. Consequently, by setting up

Global warming Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Global warming - Research Paper Example The high increase in temperatures has resulted in global warming, which has negatively affected the environment. Goldstein (2009) reports that the earth’s surface has experienced about 0.8% rise in temperature since 20th century. A report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2007 projected that the earth’s surface temperatures could increase from 1.1 to 2.9 oC in the 21st century (Goldstein, 2009). The increase is also expected to continue unless something is done to stop activities perceived to cause global warming. A report by the BBC also indicated that the world would be six and a half degrees warmer than it is today by the time a child born today reaches 80 years. Global warming has mainly been blamed on human activities taking place all over the world. However, many researchers have demonstrated that global warming is the result of greenhouse emissions into the environment. In this regard, scientists have shown that global warming occurs due to carbon emissions released into the environment, which blocks the ozone layer thereby preventing the sun’s light and heat from reaching the earth’s surface, notes Goldstein (2009). ... Research indicates that many countries in the world currently depend on fossil fuels as the main energy source. In fact, Victor (2011) reveals that more than 90% of energy all over the world currently comes from fossil fuel. According to Victor, the negative impacts of global warming are already being felt on the earth today. The impacts include persistent bush fires, glacial movements, perennial drought, flooding, typhoons and rising sea levels just to name but a few. However, since global warming is the direct result of human activities, it is viewed in an ethical angle. It is unethical for human beings to engage in activities that promote global warming. This is based on the fact that the consequences of global warming stretches beyond the good purposes for which the activities are meant. This paper will explain why I consider activities promoting global warming as being unethical. Global warming is indeed causing havoc in the world over. Its impacts are adversely affecting all na ture-human beings, oceans, forests, farms, mountains, and coasts among others. According to Fern (2003), the global warming caused by greenhouse emissions is a direct result of human activities such as burning of charcoals, industrialization, farming, the use of fossil fuel and other activities that release carbon into the atmosphere. Ethically, the most fundamental question we are often confronted with concerning particular environmental ethics pertains to the obligations we have regarded the natural environment (Keller, 2010). In this regard, if the conviction regarding the obligation is that we as human beings will suffer as a result of the failure to act appropriately, then this is regarded â€Å"anthropocentric,† which

Occupational Health and Safety Hazard Material Management and Hazard Essay - 3

Occupational Health and Safety Hazard Material Management and Hazard Communications - Essay Example 74-79). OSHA regards a certain chemical as hazardous if can pose a health or physical hazard. A health hazard is one that can cause a chronic or acute health effect on someone. On the other hand, physical hazards may include compressed gasses, organic peroxides, combustible liquids, explosives, oxidizers, flammables, unstable chemicals and water reactive ones. Chemical importers and manufacturers have the obligation of evaluating chemicals in a bid to establish whether they pose health and physical hazards to people (Robinson & Bird, 2012, p. 74-79). The Hazard Communication Standard does not cover certain product categories. These are wood and wooden products, foods, cosmetics, drugs, and alcoholic beverages packaged and sold for personal consumption. Drugs that health care providers and pharmacies dispense for patient use are not included in the labeling requirement. This also applies to over-the-counter drugs not to forget those drugs that employees consume while at the workplace like aspirin or even first aid supplies. While wood and its products are exempt from the labeling requirements, wood dust is included since it is regarded as a hazardous chemical (Robinson & Bird, 2012, p.

Marketing Internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marketing Internet - Essay Example eBay has gained the reputation for serving the kind of services they offer online for millions of clients worldwide. Millions of collectibles, appliances, computers, furniture, equipment, vehicles, and other miscellaneous items are listed, bought, and sold daily (eBay, Wikipedia). eBay business approach comprises mounting profits by increasing international traffic contained by the eBay structure. eBay is continually trying to reach different countries outside the USA, which includes market deals in Asia Pacific and Europe. The company also does acquisition of related business online companies to integrate in their current systems. This strategic approach enables eBay to expand not online in the previous services and business they handle but enlarging its business scale. Consumers and analyst view eBay as a successful business venture with over $4.55 billion total revenues in 2005. Successful as it may seem, why eBay not explore the venture of becoming a brick and mortar industry This may be an issue or another area where eBay may win in the competition though they are already a winner. In a continuing development, large businesses that existed before the invention of the Web (and were therefore bricks and mortar businesses) are becoming clicks and mortar businesses. Companies like eBay.com and others that have never owned a bricks and mortar storefront are usually known as dotcom companies. Considering the brick and mortar business, with having the physical and online business presence, eBay has a lot of opportunities to explore and take into their serious business plan in the future. Like Target Corporation (www.target.com), has practicing this kind of business enterprise as e-commerce since 1999. The corporation started as a specialty discount store and now boomed and became one of a leading merchant store. In United States, there have 1,447 stores. It now has different subsidiaries and planning to expand abroad to reach greater number of consumers. The first few Target stores included leased supermarkets in addition to general merchandise, which during the time was a common practice by discount retailers as they attempted to offer a one-stop shopping experience to customers. As a result, Target stores tend to attract younger and more educated and affluent customers than its competitors. Currently, the median Target shopper is 41 years old, which is the youngest of al l major discount retailers that Target competes directly against (Target Corporation, Wikipedia). eBay may have a behind the scene approach in the e-commerce business and Target Corporation has its own. Ebay started business online while Target Corporation has been on the business since 1960s and just recently moved online to cater consumers who cannot drop by their store outlets across the country. Differentiating their nature may see some advantages and disadvantages of practicing such business. Will one be of gain by practicing the brick and mortar business This engages systematize shipment, access into shops, handling money, signing credit card, selecting/seeing the product, carrying the product and finding the right aisle to get out. Today there are many online stores selling products from books, CD's, flowers, groceries, services, software and more.

East Asian Buddhism Essay Example for Free

East Asian Buddhism Essay The Ghost festival, the second most important festival of the year, is an event in which features of Buddhism are most relevant in Chinese culture. The ritual, by essence, belongs to the living and the dead – it creates a harmony between the two, as well as that between the individual, society and nature in its performance. Its Chinese term, Yu lan pen hui, is composed of the foreign word â€Å"yu lan† that refers to the pitiable fate of those hung upside down in the prisons of hell and the Chinese term â€Å"pen† which indicates the bowl in which offerings are placed. As the story of Mulien recorded in the Hungry ghost sutra represents, the festival synthesizes elements of Indian Buddhism into the indigenous concepts of China. Stephen F Teiser essentially captures this quality when he descirbes it as â€Å"China was made more Buddhist and Buddhism was made more Chinese. † Because the Yu lan pen jing is a key text in the development of the Buddhist rites in the ghost festival that is held in the seventh month of the lunar calendar, it will be examined to observe the blending of the two values. The Ghost Festival Sutra (also known as Yu lan pen jing), which was written in the sixth century, is peppered with traces of Buddhism attempting to integrate into Chinese life. Its first few lines become all the more significant when considering that they were not present in the oldest narrative forged approximately eighty years earlier that serves as the basis of the ghost festival, The Sutra on Repaying the Kindness by Making Offerings (also referred to as Bao en feng pen jing). As Alan Cole, Professor of Religious Studies at Lewis and Clark College cites in his book Mothers and Sons in Chinese Buddhism the Ghost Festival Sutra, Buddha pronounces these words as Mu Lian explains his failure in feeding his mother: â€Å"Even [you cannot achieve this feeding] though your filial submission resounds [everywhere], shaking heaven and earth. Neither the gods of heaven nor the gods of earth nor the evil demons of the heterodox [sects], nor the Daoist masters, nor the four heavenly kings can achieve this either† (Cole 88). Primarily, this passage directly highlights Mu Lian’ s filial affection – as Cole points out, he is endowed with the honor of being praised by the Buddha as someone whose filial submission â€Å"[shakes] heaven and earth,† which indicates that Mu Lian is considered to be the paradigm of filial piety (89). This addendum could be construed as an adaptation to the Chinese ideal, in which filiality is of the essence. More importantly however, the second half strongly suggests that the Buddhist institution has the sole rights to perform such form of ghost festival. The writers deem the non-Buddhist religious specialists – including all other gods and Daoist practitioners to be incapable of achieving the feeding of the dead (Cole 89). This reflects the increasing competition between the Buddhists and Daoists over crafting such offerings. The mix of Chinese and Buddhist ideas is also manifest in Buddha’s explanation of the reason for â€Å"the food enter[ing] [Mu Lien’s mother’s] mouth †¦ chang[ing] into flaming coals, so in the end she could not eat† as cited by Stephen F Teiser (Teiser 50). The Buddha states that his â€Å"mother’s sins are grave† (50). This directly refers to the Indian notions of Karma, signifying that his mother’s actions in previous lifetimes have led her to her current state. The second half of the Yu lan pen jing further denotes the filial theme, but emphasizes that it can only be fulfilled using Buddhist ritual means, by making offerings to the Buddhists. As Cole puts it, filial devotion is evidently â€Å"equated with being a good Buddhist† – this can be observed for instance, in the Mu Lian’s question to the Buddha shown in the following quote from Stephen F. Teiser’ s translation of the Sutra in his book The Ghost Festival in Medieval China: â€Å"But all of the future disciples of the Buddha who practice filial devotion, may they or may they not also prevent yu-lan bowls as required to save their parents as well as seven generations of ancestors† (Teiser 52). This again concords with the Chinese essentiality of filial affection, which â€Å"surpasses all other ethics in tis historical continuity† as Ho describes in William Lakos’ book Chinese Ancestor Worship (Lakos 52). Moreover, as translated by Teiser, the final passage states the desired relationship between the ritual and the Chinese society in affirming that â€Å"kings of states, princes, sons of kings, great ministers, counselors, dignitaries of the three ranks, any government officials or the majority of common people who practice filial compassion† are required to perform the ritual. This again underlines the explicit connection that the Sutra draws between performing the ritual and being filial. As Cole coins it â€Å"if you are to be filial, you perform this 7/15 Buddhist offering regardless of who you are in Chinese society† (Cole 93). In this respect, the text places the date 7/15 as the center of discussion on Buddhist filiality, characterized by the duty to save one’s parent and the necessity to make offerings to the Sangha. The festival reveals the syncretic character of Buddhism with Chinese social and cultural systems. Buddhist myths and rituals exist simultaneously with the Chinese indigenous forms of ritual and conceptions of society. The ghost festival also offers a solution to the problem of the ascetic way of life of Buddhism that imposes on Chinese culture that resounds family values. While opponents have long condemned the Sangha for fostering otherworldliness, the celebration integrates those who have chosen the ascetic path to participate in the well-being of their ancestors. As noted in the canonical source of Yu lan pen sutra as translated by Teiser, the Buddha orders â€Å"the assembled monks of the ten directions should chant prayers on behalf of the family of the donor for seven generations of ancestors† (Teiser 52). The ritual hence by nature, accepts monasticism and more importantly appoints it as a central aspect of the life in the community – the participation of the monks is pivotal to the salvation of the ancestors. Their ascetic energy is especially effective during the ritual because the full moon of the seventh month designates the day on which Sangha has finished its three-month summer retreat during which they â€Å"release themselves† through meditation, meaning the energy has been accumulated during the period (Teiser 4). In a larger sense, because the festival takes place at the time of the fall harvest, it can be interpreted as not only a symbol of the passage of priests and ancestors to new forms of existence, but also of the â€Å"completion of a cycle of plant life† (4). Their role came to entail a state level importance in the seventh century when the practice was established as part of Chinese state religion, rituals being performed for the benefit of imperial ancestors. The vitality of such function, rather than being confined to local cult, assured the cult to survive into the modern times (5). An irony arises from this ritual – wandering ghosts as well as settled ancestors are recipients of the offering. Ancestors contrast with the concept of ghosts. In his book Unities and diversities in Chinese Religion, Robert P. Weller explains that ghosts are socially marginal beings that lack â€Å"both social standing of the gods and the kinship standing of the ancestors† (Weller 60). In contrast, ancestors re deemed to have â€Å"permanent wealth and power† in the community at large – they were more than a religious concern, involving both social and political implications and upholding â€Å"indispensability in the socio-political realm† (Lakos 32). Their worship serves as a cornerstone for the ancestor-family-kinship system. This idea is well supported with the traditional Confucian view. As sociologist Hugh Baker puts it in Teiser’ s article, â€Å"other people’s dead were of little concern, the only dead to be worshipped were one’s dead and ancestors† (Teiser 60). This view corresponds to those of the defenders of indigenous traditions like Yen Chih-t’ui who assert that the solidarity of ancestors is the solely valid aspect of the celebration – they disapproved of the offerings for the hungry ghosts. Comparably, others consider the ghosts as the only recipients of the offerings, claiming that including the ancestors as the recipients were aimed to adapt the religion to the dominant, yet ultimately non-essential, cultural values (60) – their emphasis is on the Buddhist deliverance from the six paths of rebirth. This stark contrast is deemed to create a conflict between the Buddhist idea of ephemerality and Chinese social solidarity. Interestingly, the two concepts are able to be reconciled to form a bigger whole. In fact, historical records clearly reveals that both entities were served. As Teiser cites from the yun lian pen sutra, the Buddha orders the Sangha to release themselves â€Å"for the sake of seven generations of ancestors, your current parents and those in distress† (61). In his article â€Å"Ghosts and Ancestors in Medieval Chinese Religion: The Yu-lan-p’en festival as Mortuary Ritual† from the book History of Religions, Stephen F. Teiser tackles the controversy by construing the ghost festival as rites of passage. This means that the ritual allows the individual to undergo a transition from one social group to another. He or she hence leaves one â€Å"world† and joins another, with liminal period in between (Teiser 52). The celebration imbues in the dead a sense of regeneration and rebirth, through the cycle of seasonal festivals (58). In this respect, both the marginal state of the ghosts and the settled group status of the ancestors are imperative aspects of the entirety of the process. While both sides are different, they are by ritual structure, on the same side, hence by no means contradictory. Anthropologists tend to describe this as the ideas the yin and yang aspect – the fundamental basis of Chinese philosophy- of death: two seemingly opposing sides that in fact complement each other to a unitary process. Acknowledging the mutual existence of ancestors and ghosts reflects the dual nature of the hungry ghost festival. Several other views prevail in appreciating the duality of the yun lan p’en. The ritual can also be interpreted as a practice that allows a new form for an old practice – as In de Groot contends, Buddhism has offered Chinese culture with an â€Å"exotic edifice† of ritual that concords with the Chinese â€Å"extreme concern for the destiny of the dead† (62). Another perspective relies on the Chinese practicality to explain the seemingly contradicting nature of the ritual. As Holmes Welch explains, the Chinese cult exercises both aspects of the practice like a â€Å"prudent man dealing with the unknown,† since there is no way of knowing which version of the afterlife is true. This results in the form of ghost festival, which ensures that the rites of both versions are engaged (62). Essentially however, the practice recognizes the immortality of the group – as demonstrated by the ancestors – in the face of death – the ritual by nature is aimed to place the deceased as a part of the structurally unchanging king group and compels all of the members of the group, both living and dead, to gather for a communal meal (Teiser 64). One does not have to dominate, suppress or reduce the other. Understanding that these concepts are not mutually exclusive allows for an appreciation of the bigger framework of the festival – one that is full of seemingly contradictory ideas such as Buddhism and Chinese cult, ancestors and ghosts, life and death. Hence the coexistence of the ideas in the ritual are not an irony but rather a paradox in that juxtaposing the two concepts sheds light to the value of the Hungry Ghost festival.

Southern Chesapeake and Northern New England Colonies

Southern Chesapeake and Northern New England Colonies   Cody Palladino The Colonial Paper During the end of the 16th century into the 17th century, European nations briskly colonized the freshly discovered Americas. One country we know of today as England back then sent out massive amounts of groups to the North Americas, this was then separated into two regions known as new England and Chesapeake areas. Later in the 1700s the new England and Chesapeake areas would unite to become a single nation. From the very begging these two areas had many different ways of settling but struggled in similar ways. This essay will go through and explain what there many different methods were and also compare the historic process of settlement and developments were. These similarities and differences that is going to be talked about during this essay is the very reason why the settlers came to the new world such as for land, labor and religion. The colonies were affected in many ways including socially, economically, and politically. The northern New England colonies and the Southern Chesapeake colonies had very different way of settling one of the differences were the land that they had settled on. For the Chesapeake colony, their major interest was in large lands that covered a vast area, including Plymouth, Massachusetts bay, Rhode Island and many more. These areas were in which the Chesapeake were mainly interested in. For the New England settlers were interested in mining mainly of gold and silver. They had hoped that in finding these riches that it would help them in their trading actives. The Chesapeake wanted to find a passage to northwest Asia so it would promote better trading. They were also on a hunt to find a cure for the disease syphilis on the mission in the land. Anything that the Chesapeake found meaningful and possible valuable on the land they would gather and put up for trade in Europe. For the New England settler, they had  a different approach for settling of the land. There concerns were for the artisan industries which included printing, carpentry and shipbuilding. As for their concerns, they wanted to find material on the land in which could help them develop the artisan industry better. They also had some similarities when they settled on their land. First when both the Northern New England and the Southern Chesapeake colonies had settled and their land they were both populated by the English, this also meant that both colonies had counited to retain dominance in English culture. Another way they both colonies struggled in similar ways were due to the Powhatan Indians in the book Visions Of America a History of the United States by Jennifer D. Keene she states once the Indians realized that the English were not temporary visitors merely interested in trade, but were intending to settle permanently in the region, relations between the two peoples deteriorated(36). Both colonies faced conflict with Native Americans in their areas leading to the Pequot war for New E ngland colony and the Powhatan Confederacy fot the Southern Chesapeake colony. Labor was also a major mission for both the New England and Chesapeake settlers in America. For the Southern Chesapeake region, their land was merely all swampy and not good conditions at all for growing crops. But five years later after settling they caught on to the discovery of tobacco. This crop did extremely well in the condition of their land and flourished in the swamp lands. They used cheap labor in the crop fields, they also made and new type of work service where if and person wanted a free passage to America than they offered them to work for them for free for about five or so years and after your term is complete than you got a bonus of usually a 50-acre plot of land which they could use to produce their own crop usually tobacco. For the New England colony, their region did not consist of huge farm lands, most settlers of New England mainly relied on moderately small farms and also other types of industry  work for example printing and carpentry. Since the New England c olony were a home based industry they had no need to hire labor because the family was usually sufficient enough to provide the labor needed to complete the work. As a contrasting point the New England colony does not care for slavery being developed as such for the Chesapeake region they relied heavily on the people who wanted a free passage to America and slavery from the Spaniards and later form African Americans. Both the colonies also brought groups of people from all over England in spite for a better life in the North Americas. Religion was also another difference among the Northern New England and Sothern Chesapeake area, but there was also some similarities with religion as well between the two colonies. For the New England settlers, there religion was mainly composed of puritan separatists in which they were seeking religious freedom. The church of England did split from Catholicism the main religion at the time of Henry VIII. This resulted the major religion to be Protestantism. For the Chesapeake region in the book Visions Of America a History of the United States by Keene she states although he envisioned his colony as a haven for catholic, Calvert knew that its economic success depended on attracting laborers, so the colony would need to be equally hospitable to Protestants. Maryland therefore afforded religious freedom to all Christians(41). This basically explains the reason why there was so much religious freedom for the Chesapeake area due to the labors need to farm their land. Most of their simi larity fall under how they did not have one religion no matter how much New England was trying to converge everyone over to a single religion. All in all, the southern Chesapeake colonies and the Northern New England colonies had many different way of settling and running their colony. Both of these colonies also had a similar goal looking for land with better social, economic, and political freedom. As we could see the  differences was in which each colony used their land to grow and have a strong economical stands. Both they ran into some similarities with the Native Americans and also with diseases they and encountered and were trying to cure. Their religion was also noticeable different as well due to one colony wanting no diversity in religion and the other having religious freedom. It can also be noticed that both colonies had similar missions but were opposite in which the land they settled on. Work Cited Keene, Jennifer D., et al. Visions of America: a History of the United States. 3rd ed., vol. 1, Boston, Pearson, 2017.

History of Business Studies

History of Business Studies This research has been a requisite due to the fact that in 2011 students performance at Higher School Certificate level had a fail rate (Grade U) of 34.16% out of 161 examinable candidates in Business Studies at Advanced Subsidiary level (MES, 2012). Moreover, the key messages from the principal examiners report for teachers (2011) claimed that educators should show students how to construct their answers by using the context and data provided; put emphasis on number of attempts of all questions in the data response paper; improve time management skills; read questions carefully and focus answers closely to question asked; provide guidelines for command words in questions such as explain, analyse and evaluate as evaluation remains a problem for candidates. In relevance to marketing, focusing on the elements of changes to the marketing mix; contextualising the market research; picking key evidences from daily marketing activities of businesses of were the most important aspects. On t he other extreme, candidates should take care to apply analysis and evaluation skills in the context in order to achieve higher marks; give a balanced argument in answers; show how concepts are useful to a business; comprehend the exact requirements of the questions. In 2000, Raelin (p.107) sustained that We need to continue to experiment with ways to bring reflective practice to management education (Business Studies in this context). Management is truly a messy, interactive, and typically tacit activity. We tend to treat instruction at an absurdly low level of complexity . . . Consequently, the author believes that Action Learning as an Action Research may revolutionize the leaning process of Business Studies students at secondary level. Aims and Objectives of the Research Aims of Research To show how effective is Action Learning as a concept in the teaching and learning of Business Studies at HSC level. To identify learning difficulties during Business Studies lesson. Objectives To enable set participation and discussions to acquire new skills during Business Studies lesson. To assess student based on their social skills and help them to learn from their own action. To compare performance of students behaviour based on past experiences in Action Learning. To provide participants the opportunity to ask questions, support each other and take action to resolve problems. To see how effective is Action Learning in developing other skills for learners. Rationale During the past years, teacher centred approaches have dominated the learning process leading to poor results in Business Studies. Students have very often complained that the teaching strategies being adopted by teachers are not motivating. Learners see the lesson as being bulky to complete at the two last periods after recess with conventional instruction. Throughout, interest level seems to be very low and the learners try to oppose the learning process. These are the main causes why the author proposes an alternative concept in Business Studies to minimise learning barriers. This research adopts a purely humanistic conception toward the enhancement of personal development of students in Business Studies. The humanistic perspectives incorporate cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains to facilitate experiential learning. The researcher is convinced that learning difficulties encountered by the students can be identified through action leaning. Guided and just-in-time learning will take place within a safer environment in order to acquire additional skills (communication skills, social skills and interpersonal skills). Real problems may be challenging for learners though discussion and questioning. In the company of a facilitator, critical thinking, generalisation of ideas and reflection of set members are achieved. Research Questions What types of problem are students facing while doing business studies at HSC Advance Subsidiary level in Forest Side SSS (boys)? Does action learning affect personal development and performance of students during learning process? Methodology An action research has been adopted for this study based on qualitative and quantitative research methodology. For the collection of data, qualitative assessment will be implemented on social skills through participants observation and quantitative assessment in the form Students Feedback Questionnaire. The sample size consists of 5 students studying Business Studies (Advance Subsidiary) at Lower Six. Materials will be mostly Case Studies where students will have to identify problems and discussions will be made in prior to obtain an outcome by using action learning. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Introduction This chapter outlines the history and evolution of Business Studies curriculum and syllabus in Mauritius at both Lower and Upper secondary level. It highlights the importance of choosing Cambridge International Examination (CIE) for Business Studies at SC level as basic grassroots. However, the author lays more emphasis on Higher School Certificate (HSC) at Advance Subsidiary level (AS) as it is the research focus area. 1.1. Brief history of Business Studies In 1948, management of business as a subject was introduce in the Mauritian curriculum during the British colonisation. The aim was to educate elite and students from aristocratic background to undertake family businesses. Later, Mauritian students got access to London Chamber of Commerce for distance learning in management studies. Some years later, in 1965 more precisely, the local government come to a decision to launch Business Education studies in both public and private schools. Business education was provided as core and elective module at the University of Mauritius after 1971. Business education at School Certificate level Introduced in lower secondary level (Form 3) curriculum during 1986, Business Education encompassed of three major domains namely Commerce, Principles of Accounts and Economics. Few years later prescribed textbooks along with their syllabus of these subjects had to be used in all schools doing Business Education. To be eligible for SC exams, students are offered a list of subject choices in Form 3 before promoting to Form 4. They are given the chance to select their study side. For instance, they can opt for Commercial studies, Business Studies, Economics, and Accounting. The syllabus code for Business Studies at O level is 7115. The exam paper embraces two sections namely; short-answer questions, structured questions and data response questions and Paper 2 questions derived from a given case study carrying equal weightage. Business activity, the organisation, changing business environment, economic environment, marketing and production are some underlining topics at Business Studies O level for students to apply their understanding to a variety of simple business situation. Figure 1.1 illustrates the grade distribution of Business Studies in 2011 at SC level. 1.3. Why choosing Cambridge O level Business Studies? Cambridge O level Business Studies is acknowledged by Universities and employers as a proof of business concepts and techniques across a range of different types of business (University of Cambridge, 2012). Successful students are exposed to lifelong business skills incorporating: understanding different forms of business organisations, the environments in which businesses operate and business functions such as marketing, operations and finance; an appreciation of the critical role of people in business success; confidence to calculate and interpret business data; communication skills including the need to support arguments with reasons; ability to analyse business situations and reach decisions or judgments. (Source: University of Cambridge, 2012) 1.4. Business education at Higher School Certificate level Business Studies at HSC level is demarcated by offering compulsory subject combinations through which learners have to compete for. For example, E03 would mean the combination of Economics, Business Studies and Accounting and NS20 would stand for Mathematics, Business Studies and Accounting. The paper code was amended in 2001 as 9707 which was previously 9368 for Management of Business. The exams paper takes into account of Core topics (for Advance Subsidiary) and Extension topics for Advanced level students. The composition of Advance Subsidiary (AS) exam session is of Papers 1 and 2 covering only core topics in Business Studies curriculum. Paper 2 lasts for 90 minutes through which students have to answer two data response questions in contrast to Paper 1 having two sections (A for short answer questions and B for essay on core curriculum) with duration of 75 minutes and weightage of 40 percent of the total marks. AS level syllabuses are designed to offer candidates with 180 guided learning hours with direct teaching per subject over the duration of the course and may vary with curricular practice and candidates prior knowledge on the subject. The main aims of the syllabus are to provide critical understanding of business activity, nature, and behavior and at the same time developing skills for decision making, problem solving, management of information and effective communication. Some topics covered by the syllabus are business and its environment, people in organizations, marketing, operations and project management, finance and accounting and finally strategic management which was recently introduce in the syllabus. It is worthy to note that AS results are shown in grades of a, b, c, d and e whereby grade a being the highest, e the lowest marks scored and U as ungraded (fail). A concrete example is illustrated in Figure 1.2 showing the performance in Business Studies at AS level for 2011. 1.5. Conclusion There has been an evolution in Business Education since 1965. With a high level of failures among Business Studies students in 2011, this study has become a priority to identify the factors causing learning difficulties through the use of Action Learning. The next chapter present an overview of AL as a concept. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction There is a number of reasons for the need for educational reform, including inappropriate methods of teaching and learning Mograby (1999), which have been largely a combination of teacher-directed rote learning using state developed curriculum and test-driven assessment (McNally, et al.,2002). Educational reform requires teachers with new knowledge and skills, teachers who are proactive and capable of generating their own professional dynamics (Wallace, 1996, p. 281). For those hoping to achieve learner agency, there are many powerful approaches aligned with the goals of active learning. One of these is Action Learning (AL) by Revan (1998). Hence, in this literature the first part emphasise on a definition for action learning. Various models of AL are discussed and interpreted as experiential leaning process. Last but not least, the characteristics of AL are described bearing in mind its components such as the AL set and the facilitator or the advisor. 2.1. Definition of Action Learning Revans (1998, p.83) asserted that there can be no learning without action and no action without learning. An action is a process of doing something to achieve a particular aim: student need to study to pass exams. Alternatively, learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study or experience: different student experience different learning difficulties. Wrapping up action and learning would simply mean a course of action of performing a task differently through study and past experience to attain particular objectives. In a different way it is the transfer of knowledge, skill, and behaviour to something practical (Weinstein, 1998) to acquire wisdom. Yet, numerous researchers have elucidated the concept of Action Learning further. Action Learning formerly developed by Revans during the 1940s enable top management to steer the coal mining industry through a period of tumultuous change after world in Britain (OHara et al, 1996). The idea of Action Learning later became a reference for problem-solving for managers who believed that appropriate solutions may arise through discussions and changes in behaviours. Willmott (1997) elucidated how action learning can contribute to critical thinking by exploring how comparative abstract ideas can be mobilized in the process of understanding and changing interpersonal practices. Tom Bourner et al (1996) defined AL as a process of reflection and action aimed at improving effectiveness of action where learning is an important outcome while in 2002, Zuber-Skerrit came forward with a newer definition for Action Learning as learning inspiring from concrete experience and critical reflection on that experience which may occur in or by group discussions, trial and error, discover y and learning from and with each other. ONeil (1996) believed that AL programmes are used to help individuals to acquire new learning skills (social skills, communication skills and interpersonal skills), however, OHara et al (1996, p.16) put it as being less straightforward and more demanding than a traditional taught program. The latter argued that participants develop the capacity to be life-time learners, enabling them to adapt to new situations and circumstances (p.21) through AL. 2.2. Models of Action Learning Revans (1998) derived a model for action learning through conventional education system (traditional and formal methods of instruction) and penetrating questions (questioning skills used to get to the unknown). He expressed it by an equation: L=P+Q Whereby, L represents totality of individuals learning; P which is programmed knowledge and Q as the questioning insight. Though questioning insight boosts up effective learning (questions set from lower levels to higher levels) and facilitates the exploration of nature, action learning is not about acquiring only knowledge. That is why, Weinstein (1998) put forward that action learning is about practical learning and thinking differently through the use of new set of values and beliefs. Besides, based on a UK conference experience, Krystyna Weinstein devised a model of AL by focusing on a combination of three Ps comprising of a philosophy; specific procedures and two-end products. Weinstein (1997) argued that if any of the three Ps is missing, action learning will not crop up due to the fact that the philosophy underpins the procedures and show how the two end-products are reached. In her model, Ruebling (2007) stated that awareness (goals to achieve), inquiry (structured questioning through factual, feeling, possibility and decisional questions), insight and possibilities (suggestions), planning, commitment of future team meeting, accountability, execution, reflection, experiential learning and recalibration (take any particular to the next level whilst providing additional solutions) are the critical success factors for AL. Numerous types of AL were thought-out into four different schools (Tacit, Scientific, Experiential and Critical Reflection schools) by ONeil in 1999 whereby the centre of attention were real problems, scientific research, experiential learning, and reflections consecutively. OHara (1996) proposed a model to show how AL has been integrated in higher education whereby it involved processes which motivate participants to learn in a safety environment; set members share commitment and competences which eventually lead to personal or group challenges; the facilitator brings in trust, support and intellectual or emotional energy. Furthermore, the learner achieves a more fulfilling and successful experience when the action leaning approach is merged with stock of knowledge, research techniques and outcomes are assessed to gain academic qualification, learning skills and ability to deals with new circumstances. 2.3. Action learning as experiential learning Zuber-Skerritt (2002), Miller (2003) and Hicks (1996) advocated that action learning is identical to experiential learning that is, it is more than just a different form of expressing how to learn from experience (Mumford, 1995). However, Smith (2001, p.36) implied that: It is well known that experience itself is a very slippery teacher; most of the time we have experiences from which we never learn . . . action learning seeks to throw a net around slippery experiences and capture them as learning, i.e. replicable behaviour in similar and, indeed, differing contexts. A framework is provided to AL participants through which an individual, having had a concrete experience and having made observations about and reflected upon that experience, is in a position to form or develop abstract concepts or generalization based upon their observations and reflections. These concepts can then be tested in a new situation or a changed environment, which will, in turn, lead to new concrete experiences (Raelin, 1997; Smith, 2001). Figure 2.3 shows the Experiential learning cycle design by Kolb (1984) Experiential learning (Figure 2.3) also occurs through the action learning set (Mumford, 1991) as set members learn through their experiences of their actions, their observations, reflections, and conceptualizations are developed. They are encouraged and challenged explicitly through the set, which provides support to test the new understanding for discussions to develop and learn from experience in order to change, rather than simply repeating previous patterns (McGill and Beaty, 1992). 2.4. Characteristics of Action Learning Many researchers debated that effective Action Learning can only take place if the four elements below are linked to one another: the person or individual; the problem they are seeking to solve; a group of individuals (the learning set) with whom they interact; and action on the problem and learning from this action. Following the same dimensions, Smith and ONeil (2003) grouped some common characteristics of AL whereby problems are tackled in real time with no right answer; participants meet several times in small sets; problems are relevant; participants ask questions, reflect, extract lessons; they support each other; and take actions to resolve problems between set meetings. Problem solving provides the learner with an opportunity to act, be creative and to show that there is a significant change in behaviour, not simple increased awareness than rumination on unbounded ideas (MacVaugh and Norton, 2011). Although problems involved in learning may be familiar or unfamiliar to a group, internal or external, AL problems must, be real, significant, clearly defined, challenging, involve implementation (action) and capable of being learned from (Revans, 1980, 1982; Edmonstone, 2002). Furthermore, Marquardt (1999, 2004) identified six components of Action Learning which encloses a challenge is important to the group; diverse background for groups of four to eight; a process of questions and reflections; power to take action for strategies developed; commitment to learning at team and individual level; and lastly an AL coach who promotes learning and improve skills for personal development of team members. Personal development requires a person who is encouraged to develop his or her own reflective practices with a view to making things happen or change. According to Revans (1980, p. 43) this personal development works best when it is a natural outcome of a managers reflection on their daily practice; by tackling todays problems more thoughtfully, he automatically learns how better to tackle tomorrows. Ruebling (2007) discussed that bottlenecks can be eliminated from beginning to end by peer accountability and a distinctive peer-questioning to classify biases and a ssumptions driving thinking processes and behaviors. 2.5. Action learning Set Set is a group of participant or colleagues working with real problems with the intention of getting things done and take active stance toward life and helps to overcomepressures of life and work (McGill and Beaty, 1992). Set members comprises of four to six learners as there are no hard or fast rules about the constitution (Johnson, 1998). Set as a group process; it uses peers to generate learning from reflection on practice (Beaty et al., 1997, p. 185) and brings people together to exchange, support and challenge each other in seeking to learning (Pedler, 1996, p. 15). It is not an official meeting as there is no headperson or minutes of meeting to be taken which is absolutely essential to effective action learning (Mercer, 1990; Mumford, 1995). On the contrary, Craig Johnson (1998) stated that sets meeting support individuals in reflecting on past actionsand construct future action based on actual problems but Lee (1996) maintained that set requires equality of voice, shared trust and confidence, open discussion and a supportive environment, and works best when of an interdisciplinary nature. It is through discussion and questioning that set individuals develop their understanding and outcomes of a scrupulous problem. 2.6. The facilitator In action learning the facilitator creates a conducive learning environment by enabling participants to be more active and self-directed towards taking more responsibility for what they learn and how they learn it, and for assessing whether they have learned it. He or she is mainly the teacher in a classroom context with the expectation of developing the skills of learning for the students. Skills as such may be for instance, encouraging critical thinking, theories development and real world reflections. Also known as the advisor, the exact moment is resolved to perform role plays in a particular milieu. Facilitators rely on the group to offer suggestions to members engaged in project quandaries (Raelin, 1997) and are dissimilar from that of the university lecturer; they do not teach, but help participants to learn from exposure to problems and one another (Mumford, 1995). The role of the facilitator is to ensure the set is focused on and effective in its discussions, but ultimately the facilitator wants the set to work independently. However, it was observed that external pressures influencing the learning advisor were encountered within the organisational setting (sitting arrangements for this research) and low frequency of regular meeting over an extended period of time of group members (McGill and Beaty, 1992; Pedler, 1991). Other researchers such as ONeil and Marsick (1994) noted that programme design that is questioning insight in action learning provided just-in-time learning. However, the background of the advisor/facilitator, workload assigned, need and attitudes of participants (ONeil, 1996) might have a harsh impact on the learning process. 2.7. Conclusion The literature review chapter clearly depicts that very few educational institutions (Tacit, Scientific, Experiential and Critical Reflection schools) are said to have applied active learning using a unified model (Maudsley, 1999) such as action learning (Revans, 1998). AL programmes help students to acquire new learning skills ONeil (1996) and learn from concrete experience and critical reflection through group discussions. In a way, it is a transfer of knowledge, skill, and behaviour to something practical (Weinstein, 1998) by set members whereby problems are tackled in real time with no right answer (Smith and ONeil, 2003). The facilitator or the teacher creates a favourable learning environment by enabling participants to be more active and self-directed towards taking more responsibility. That is why the author believes that there is a need to change from the traditional transmission model, (transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the student, (McNally, et al., 2002)) to a learner centred approach by implementing AL. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodological implementation of Action Leaning concept as an Action Research in Business Studies to achieve research objectives. One of the main objectives is to point out whether Action Learning offers contribution to the development of students social, communication, interpersonal and problem solving skills. Furthermore, it provides the opportunity to see whether a profound learning relationship is built between the teacher and the student through participation, discussions, past experiences and transferring of skills. The first section discusses about the AR process and its implementation throughout the study context. Details about the data collection methods are elaborated further at a later stage along with the sampling design process. 3.1. Study Context This study has been carried out in a Secondary State School in lower Plaines Wilhems district (Zone 3) in Mauritius. Students in Lower Six Economics One (LVIE1) studying Business Studies at Advance Subsidiary with subjects combination of Sociology, Accounting, Economics and Mathematic were the main participants for this research. Respondents were informed beforehand about this research and were willing to try something new as a teaching and learning strategy in Business Studies. 3.2. Why Action Research (AR)? AR is a new methodology that emerged after the First World War from the intellectual climate and ethos of an era that focus on empowerment and change, gathering momentum across contexts and cultures (Zuber-Skerritt and Fletcher, 2007). Some key features of Action Research outlined by Koshy (2005) are the involvement in research for teachers own practice (analysis, reflection and evaluation), facilitation of changes through enquiry and its usefulness in term real problem solving as it deals within actual situations. The main advantages gain from using Action Research are: research is focused only to a specific context which provides the efficient use of time and cost; researchers can be participants and always close to the situation; open-ended outcomes can emerged; through AR the researcher can bring about modification in projects and at times theoretical development may occur. OLeary (2004) depicted AR as a cyclical process comprising of observations to gather data, reflect on thes e research data and finally design a plan for implementation to generate further knowledge. She further argues that cycles converge towards better situation understanding and improved action implementation; and are based in evaluative practice that alters between action and critical reflection (2004: 140). 3.3. Time Frame The implementation of Action Learning in Marketing as topic in Business Studies took place from 29th August to 13th September 2012 wrapping up three weeks during the third school term. The consecutive weeks were split into three cycles as stated below: Cycle 0: 27th August 31th August (3rd Week) Cycle 1: 3rd September 7th September (4th Week) Cycle 2: 10th September 14th September (5th Week) 3.4. Sampling 3.4.1. Set Members The sample to undertake AL has been students from Lower Six Form at a State Secondary School. These participants also known as the set members are mixed ability students having different socio-economic and ethnic background. All of them lives in the nearby villages and will take part in the Cambridge International Examination next year. The set comprises of five boys, all studying Business Studies at Subsidiary Level in respect of their other subjects chosen at Advanced Level. For AL to take place, set members are to be grouped to achieve learning objectives. 3.4.2. The facilitator In this context, the researcher will act as the facilitator to smooth the progress of discussions through effective questioning methods. The advisor encourages participation to develop positive attitudes along with social skills among students. 3.5. Data Collection Methods Innovative forms of assessment will be carried out to gather data instead of the traditional test assessment in the forms of: Qualitative assessment through observation and checklist prepared by the facilitator to assess interaction among students, Quantitative assessment through Students Feedback Questionnaire at the end of the teaching/learning strategy. 3.5.1. Observation Observation is performed by the facilitator whereby attitudes and behaviours are noted down. The important criteria considered to bring drastic changes in personal development in the student will be as follows; students level of response, involvement, participation, behaviours toward peers and ability to discuss and ask questions. 3.5.2. Checklist The facilitators assessment checklist is constructed from beginning to end based on variables (criteria) discussed in Chapter Two (Literature Review) on Action Learning. Criteria are selected by the researcher for the contribution of personal development as well as improving social, problem-solving, communication and interpersonal skills. Each criteria is rated from 1 (Very Poor) to 5 (Very Good) including 3 as Satisfactory as illustrated below in Table 3.1. 3.5.3. Students Feedback Questionnaire Students Feedback Questionnaires (See Appendix 1) were distributed and collected to targeted respondents on 19th of September after the AR had been completed. After a small consultation about confidentiality, students were convinced about reliability of this research and agreed to fill in the data with all honesty. Some students had a kind of fear as it was the first time they were participated in a survey. However, the response rate was 100% as they cooperated and participated fully in the exercise. 3.6. Ethical Issues on Data Collection Ethical requirements in research should not only aim to only benefits but to avoid any harm. In this context, the principles of the research ethics were considered as: Minimising the risk of causing emotional harm to students by not probing into their personal life through the use of irrelevant questions. Moreover, the researcher would have been out of context and would shatter the prevailing level of trust. Obtaining the consent of the learner himself without which getting hold of data would have been impossible. Consent forms were set up and signature of students parents were required. This research provides secrecy for the name of school and school staffs where this study has been carried out. Protecting confidentiality of data collected was of high priority as trust is the bridge between the researcher and the respondent. There was avoidance of deceptive practises whereby students were well informed beforehand about this research and additional information was provided to them to clear any misunderstandings. Learners were provided the right to withdraw from the survey at any point of time and were not forced to take u this exercise. 3.7. Triangulation More than one method of data collection tools has been used for this Action Research. Triangulation methodology is a mixture of quantitative and qualitative research techniques to generate reliable data and at the same time support the validity of the research. In this study data triangulation was

Ambition in Macbeth Essay examples -- Ambition, Shakespeare, Macbeth

In the play of â€Å"Macbeth†, Shakespeare gradually and effectively deepens our understanding of the themes and most importantly the relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. The main theme of Macbeth is ambition, and how it compels the main characters to pursue it. The antagonists of the play are the three witches, who symbolise the theme appearance and reality. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth’s relation is an irony throughout the play, as most of their relation is based on greed and power. This is different from most of Shakespeare’s other plays, which are mostly based on romance and trust. There is also guilt that leads Macbeth and Lady Macbeth to the final consequences of the play. As the progresses, the constant changes in Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are exposed. The relation of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth takes a few turns throughout the play. It starts with Lady Macbeth being in control and dominating Macbeth. Then suddenly Macbeth turns into an unhesitant man, who gets accustomed to killing and getting his own way. The dire changes in the characters affect the couple’s relation extremely. Shakespeare introduces the protagonist of the play as a valiant and a prominent character, even before the audience meets him. Macbeth’s fellow soldiers give us a view of his bravery and courageous manner. In order to prove his loyalty towards his king, Macbeth had won the appalling war against Norway, and became a hero: â€Å"For brave Macbeth – well he deserves that name – Disdaining Fortune, with his brandished steel, which smoked with bloody execution.† Shakespeare’s effective use of word choice in ‘brave’ makes the audience understand the protagonist deeply. Ironically, later in the play, Macbeth’s ambitions take over him and become the antag... ...ave died hereafter; there would have been a time for such a word.† Macbeth cold-heartedly states that Lady Macbeth would have died sooner or later, and that this news was bound to come someday. This behaviour of Macbeth’s startles the audience, as how can one be so remorseless. Shakespeare has changed the character of Macbeth as a tyrant, who only cares about his power and nothing else. In trying to achieve everything possible, the Macbeths’ tragically lose everything instead. Shakespeare has effectively showed us the consequences of murder and power. The main symbolic signs of blood, murder and guilt throughout the play, gave the changes of the relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth efficiently. What once started as a dominating relation and taking decisions together, turned into a relation in which neither Macbeth or Lady Macbeth cared for one another.

Adult Students: Recruitment and Retention :: Education Learning Essays

Adult Students: Recruitment and Retention How to attract and retain adult students is an enduring question for providers of adult education. Adult students must juggle competing demands on their time from study, family, work, and other commitments; their learning goals are often different from those of educational institutions and providers; and their needs and aspirations may change during the education process, sometimes as a result of it. This Brief reviews recent research related to adult student recruitment and retention and provides guidelines for recruiting and retaining adult learners. Adult Students and Persistence Adult students' participation and persistence in educational activities ranging from adult literacy to doctoral programs is a complex phenomenon involving an array of factors. Adults are often affected by situational factors beyond their control—job, health problems, financial problems, legal problems, personal or family problems (Belzer 1998). Likewise, dispositional factors such as expectations, self-esteem, level of family support, and past educational experience, can be barriers to participation (Hubble 2000). Institutional factors such as red tape, program fees, scheduling, and procedures can either help or hinder participation (Quigley 1998). In fact, adult students who drop out are often actually "stopping out"—that is, interrupting their studies but planning to return (Frank and Gaye 1997)—or attending other institutions (Hoffman and Elias 1999). Recruitment Adult participation is shaped by access to program information; recruitment should be viewed as a multistep process of drawing people into programs rather than motivating them to sign up for a single course (Bond, Merrill, and Smith 1997). That process begins with promotional information to prompt participant contact; it continues with a prompt response to initial contacts, providing details by phone or print, and inviting potential participants to a local information session. Follow-up on initial contact is crucial; one study of adults who contacted literacy programs found that the most common reason for not enrolling was not getting a call back (Long 2001). Promotional materials should be inexpensive and eye-catching. They should provide basic information that speaks to potential participants--for example, "It's fun, it's free, it's local and there's assistance with child care" (Bond, Merrill, and Smith 1997, p. 9); and they should stress the nonschool nature of programs. Program information can also be provided in face-to-face contacts-knocking on doors in local neighborhoods or staffing an information booth at a community fair (Lankard, Nixon-Ponder, and Imel 1995), on the shop floor (Hellman 1995), or in neighborhood churches, unions, or human services agencies (Gerardi and Smirni 1996). Adult Students: Recruitment and Retention :: Education Learning Essays Adult Students: Recruitment and Retention How to attract and retain adult students is an enduring question for providers of adult education. Adult students must juggle competing demands on their time from study, family, work, and other commitments; their learning goals are often different from those of educational institutions and providers; and their needs and aspirations may change during the education process, sometimes as a result of it. This Brief reviews recent research related to adult student recruitment and retention and provides guidelines for recruiting and retaining adult learners. Adult Students and Persistence Adult students' participation and persistence in educational activities ranging from adult literacy to doctoral programs is a complex phenomenon involving an array of factors. Adults are often affected by situational factors beyond their control—job, health problems, financial problems, legal problems, personal or family problems (Belzer 1998). Likewise, dispositional factors such as expectations, self-esteem, level of family support, and past educational experience, can be barriers to participation (Hubble 2000). Institutional factors such as red tape, program fees, scheduling, and procedures can either help or hinder participation (Quigley 1998). In fact, adult students who drop out are often actually "stopping out"—that is, interrupting their studies but planning to return (Frank and Gaye 1997)—or attending other institutions (Hoffman and Elias 1999). Recruitment Adult participation is shaped by access to program information; recruitment should be viewed as a multistep process of drawing people into programs rather than motivating them to sign up for a single course (Bond, Merrill, and Smith 1997). That process begins with promotional information to prompt participant contact; it continues with a prompt response to initial contacts, providing details by phone or print, and inviting potential participants to a local information session. Follow-up on initial contact is crucial; one study of adults who contacted literacy programs found that the most common reason for not enrolling was not getting a call back (Long 2001). Promotional materials should be inexpensive and eye-catching. They should provide basic information that speaks to potential participants--for example, "It's fun, it's free, it's local and there's assistance with child care" (Bond, Merrill, and Smith 1997, p. 9); and they should stress the nonschool nature of programs. Program information can also be provided in face-to-face contacts-knocking on doors in local neighborhoods or staffing an information booth at a community fair (Lankard, Nixon-Ponder, and Imel 1995), on the shop floor (Hellman 1995), or in neighborhood churches, unions, or human services agencies (Gerardi and Smirni 1996).